No provision or benefit for federal or state income taxes has been recorded, as the Company has incurred a net loss for all of the periods presented, and the Company has provided a full valuation allowance against its deferred tax assets.

At December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company had federal net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $197,846,000 and $186,267,000 respectively, of which federal carryforwards will expire in varying amounts beginning in 2029. Of the federal net operating loss carryforwards of $197,846,000, approximately $141,494,000 are from periods after 2017 and have no expiration date. Net operating loss carryforwards starting in 2021 are limited to 80% of taxable income. At December 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company had State net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $188,273,000 and $177,171,000, respectively. Utilization of net operating losses may be subject to substantial annual limitations due to the “change in ownership” provisions of the Internal Revenue Code, and similar state provisions. The annual limitations may result in the expiration of net operating losses before utilization. The Company has not yet conducted a study to determine if any such changes have occurred that could limit the Company’s ability to use the net operating losses and tax credit carryforwards. The Company also had research and development tax credit carryforwards at December 31, 2022 and 2021 of approximately $9,376,000 and $8,656,000, respectively, of which will begin to expire in varying amounts beginning in 2033.

The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“TCJA”) requires taxpayers to capitalize and amortize research and development (“R&D”) expenditures under section 174 for tax years beginning after December 31, 2021. This rule became effective for us during 2022 and resulted in capitalized R&D costs of $14,523,000 as of December 31, 2022. We will amortize these costs for tax purposes over 5 years for R&D performed in the U.S. and over 15 years for R&D performed outside the U.S.

The Company has maintained a full valuation allowance against its deferred tax assets in all periods presented. A valuation allowance is required to be recorded when it is not more likely than not that some portion or all the net deferred tax assets will be realized. Since the Company cannot determine that it is more likely than not that it will generate taxable income, and thereby realize the net deferred tax assets, a full valuation allowance has been provided. The valuation allowance increased by $8,633,000 and $1,052,000 in 2022 and 2021, respectively, due to increased net operating loss carryforwards and increased capitalization of R&D expenditures in 2022 as required by changes to the tax laws from the TCJA as described above. The Company has no uncertain tax positions at December 31, 2022 and 2021 that would affect its effective tax rate. Since the Company is in a loss carryforward position, the Company is generally subject to U.S. federal and state income tax examinations by tax authorities for all years for which a loss carryforward is available.